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J.
Barton, M. Griffin and J. Pretty. Exercise, Nature and Socially
Interactive Based Initiatives Improve Mood and Self-esteem in the
Clinical Population. Perspectives in Public Health, 2011; DOI:
10.1021/1757913910393862
Aims:
This study evaluated two existing group-based health promotion
initiatives (a social club and a swimming group) and compared
these to a new green exercise programme (weekly countryside and
urban park walks).
Methods:
Participants represented a clinical population (N = 53)
and were all experiencing a range of mental health problems. They
only attended one of the three programmes and sessions were held
once a week for six weeks in all initiatives. Composite
questionnaires incorporating two standardized measures to analyse
changes in self-esteem and mood were completed before and after
all sessions.
Results: A
significant main effect for self-esteem and mood pre and post
activity (p < 0.001) was reported after participating in
a single session. The change in self-esteem was significantly
greater in the green exercise group compared with the social
activities club (p < 0.001). Dose responses showed that
both self-esteem and mood levels improved over the six-week period
and improvements were related to attendance in the green exercise
group. Conclusions:
Green exercise as a health-promoting initiative for people
experiencing mental ill health is equally as effective as existing
programmes. Combining exercise, nature and social components in
future initiatives may play a key role in managing and supporting
recovery from mental ill health, suggesting a potential ‘green’
approach to mental healthcare and promotion.
J. Thompson Coon,
K. Boddy, K. Stein, R. Whear, J. Barton, M. H.
Depledge. Does Participating in Physical
Activity in Outdoor Natural Environments Have a
Greater Effect on Physical and Mental Wellbeing than
Physical Activity Indoors? A Systematic Review.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2011; :
110203115102046 DOI:
10.1021/es102947t
Our objective was to
compare the effects on mental and physical wellbeing, health related
quality of life and long-term adherence to physical activity, of
participation in physical activity in natural environments compared
with physical activity indoors. We conducted a systematic review
using the following data sources: Medline, Embase, Psychinfo,
GreenFILE, SportDISCUS, The Cochrane Library, Science Citation Index
Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities
Citation Index, Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science and
BIOSIS from inception to June 2010. Internet searches of relevant
Web sites, hand searches of relevant journals, and the reference
lists of included papers and other review papers identified in the
search were also searched for relevant information. Controlled
trials (randomized and nonrandomized) were included. To be eligible
trials had to compare the effects of outdoor exercise initiatives
with those conducted indoors and report on at least one physical or
mental wellbeing outcome in adults or children. Screening of
articles for inclusion, data extraction, and quality appraisal were
performed by one reviewer and checked by a second with discrepancies
resolved by discussion with a third if necessary. Due to the
heterogeneity of identified studies a narrative synthesis was
performed. Eleven trials (833 adults) were included. Most
participants (6 trials; 523 adults) were young students. Study entry
criteria and methods were sparsely reported. All interventions
consisted of a single episode of walking or running indoors with the
same activity at a similar level conducted outdoors on a separate
occasion. A total of 13 different outcome measures were used to
evaluate the effects of exercise on mental wellbeing, and 4 outcome
measures were used to assess attitude to exercise. Most trials (n =
9) showed some improvement in mental wellbeing on one or other of
the outcome measures. Compared with exercising indoors, exercising
in natural environments was associated with greater feelings of
revitalization and positive engagement, decreases in tension,
confusion, anger, and depression, and increased energy. However, the
results suggested that feelings of calmness may be decreased
following outdoor exercise. Participants reported greater enjoyment
and satisfaction with outdoor activity and declared a greater intent
to repeat the activity at a later date. None of the identified
studies measured the effects of physical activity on physical
wellbeing or the effect of natural environments on exercise
adherence. The hypothesis that there are added beneficial effects to
be gained from performing physical activity outdoors in natural
environments is very appealing and has generated considerable
interest. This review has shown some promising effects on
self-reported mental wellbeing immediately following exercise in
nature which are not seen following the same exercise indoors.
However, the interpretation and extrapolation of these findings is
hampered by the poor methodological quality of the available
evidence and the heterogeneity of outcome measures employed. The
review demonstrates the paucity of high quality evidence on which to
base recommendations and reveals an undoubted need for further
research in this area. Large, well designed, longer term trials in
populations who might benefit most from the potential advantages of
outdoor exercise are needed to fully elucidate the effects on mental
and physical wellbeing. The influence of these effects on the
sustainability of physical activity initiatives also awaits
investigation.
Barton J and Pretty J. 2010. What is the Best Dose of Nature and
Green Exercise for Improving Mental Health? A Multi-Study Analysis.
Environmental Science and Technology
44(10):3947-55
Green exercise is activity in the presence of nature. Evidence shows
it leads to positive short and long-term health outcomes. This
multi-study
analysis assessed
the best regime of dose(s) of acute exposure to green exercise
required to improve self-esteem and mood (indicators of mental
health). The research used meta-analysis methodology to analyse ten
UK studies involving 1252 participants. Outcomes
were identified through
a priori
sub-group analyses, and dose-responses were assessed for exercise
intensity and exposure duration. Other sub-group analyses included
gender; age group; starting health status and type of habitat. The
overall effect size for improved self-esteem was d=0.46 (CI
0.34-0.59, p<0.00001) and for mood
d=0.54
(CI 0.38-0.69, p<0.00001). Dose responses for both intensity and
duration showed large benefits from short engagements in green
exercise, and then diminishing but still positive returns. Every
green environment improved both self-esteem and mood; the presence
of water generated greater effects. Both men and women had similar
improvements in self-esteem after green exercise, though men showed
a difference for mood. Age groups: for self-esteem, the greatest
change was in the youngest, with diminishing effects with age; for
mood, the least change was in the young and old. The mentally-ill
had one of the greatest self-esteem improvements. This study
confirms that the environment provides an important health service.
Haubenhofer DK, Elings M, Hassink J and Hine RE. 2010.
The Development of Green Care in Western European Countries.
Explore 6(2) 106-111
This article represents a review of green care across Western
European countries. The following questions are addressed: What is
green care, and what are its basic goals? What are the most commonly
known types of green care interventions, and how are they connected
to each other? There are different sectors of green care
intervention that vary from each other regarding their structure,
specific goals, and purpose. These traits will be investigated in
this review. And lastly, how these interventions are designed and
their approach to promote and provide health will be examined.
Key words:
Care farming, animal-assisted interventions, social and therapeutic
horticulture, healing gardens, green exercise, wilderness therapy.
Sandercock G, Angus C and Barton J. 2010. Physical activity levels
of children living in different built environments. Preventive
Medicine
 DOI:10.1016/j.ypmed.2010.01.005
Objective.
To review the available literature assessing differences in physical
activity levels of children living in different built environments
classified according to land use within developed countries.
Methods. A
systematic review of published literature up to March 2009. Online
searches of five databases yielded 18 studies which met inclusion
criteria. Studies provided data on n=129446,
5-18 years
old 21 (n=117544 from the United States).
Results.
From 13 assessments of differences in physical activity between
rural and urban children one showed that rural children were
significantly more active than urban children. In studies where the
built environment was sub-divided further, suburban and small town
children showed the highest levels of physical activity, followed by
rural, then urban children. Differences in types of physical
activity undertaken were evident, showing that rural children spent
more time outdoors, involved in unstructured play compared with
urban children. These findings were mainly restricted to children
<13 years old.
Conclusions.
The literature does not show major differences in the physical
activity levels between
children
from rural or urban areas. Where studied, the suburban built
environment appears most conducive to promoting physical activity.
Further research should use at least a trilateral division of the
built environment and should also account for socioeconomic status,
racial factors and seasonal effects.
Barton J, Hine R and Pretty J. 2009. The health benefits of walking
in greenspaces of high natural and heritage value. Journal of
Integrative Environmental Sciences 6(4) 1-18
Lifestyles
are increasingly characterised by sedentary behaviour, obesity
problems, stress, mental ill-health and disconnection from nature.
However, contact with nature has been shown to improve psychological
health by reducing stress, enhancing mood and replenishing mental
fatigue. In addition to providing a range of environmental services,
greenspaces provide opportunities and
incentives
for ‘green exercise’ such as walking, cycling or horse riding.
Visitor numbers indicate that many people already benefit from
spending time in greenspaces, but little is known about the
immediate impact of an acute exposure on their health and wellbeing.
This study focuses on evaluating changes in self-esteem and mood
after walking in four different National Trust sites of natural and
heritage value in the East of England. The standardised measures of
both
self-esteem
and mood were administered immediately pre- and post-activity.
Self-esteem
scores for
visitors leaving the sites were significantly higher than those just
arriving and overall mood also significantly improved. Feelings of
anger, depression, tension and confusion all significantly reduced
and vigour increased. Thus, the environment plays an important role
in facilitating physical activities and helping to address sedentary
behaviours. Walking, in particular, can serve many purposes
including exercise, recreation, travel, companionship, relaxation
and restoration. However, walking in greenspaces may offer a more
sustainable option, as the primary reward is enhanced emotional
wellbeing through both exposure to nature and participation in
exercise. Keywords: greenspaces; natural environments;
self-esteem; mood; walking;
physical activity.
Hine R. 2008. Care farming: Bringing together agriculture and health. ECOS 29(2), 42-51
A recent study carried
out by the University of Essex examined the range and extent of care
farming in the UK and also conducted an in-depth case study analysis
involving clients of different types of care farm, to provide some
empirical data addressing psychological health and well-being
effects of spending time on a care farm. The aim of both studies
being to help build up a body of evidence to inform health and
social care providers (amongst others) and to support the promotion
and spread of care farming in the UK. There is great potential for
the use of farms (as well as forests, canals, and nature reserves),
to provide programmes of green care, which could bring greater
connections between people and the land (both farmed and
non-farmed), and thus greater understanding of the environment. Care
faming and other green care approaches could link policy priorities
for farming, conservation, countryside and health agencies, and help
create healthy places for the general public.
Hine R, Peacock J and Pretty J. 2008.
Care farming in the UK: Contexts, benefits and links with
therapeutic communities.
Int. Journal of
Therapeutic Communities 29(3)
There is
increasing evidence for the positive role of nature in human health,
particularly in the light of the increase in sedentary lifestyles
and the emergence of growing health concerns over obesity, coronary
heart disease (CHD) and mental illness. This paper addresses the
links between contact with nature and improved health and
well-being, introduces the concept of various green care approaches
and examines the links between care farming and therapeutic
communities. Two studies outlining care farming in the UK are
described. The first is a scoping exercise to discover the current
extent and diversity of care farming in the UK, in order to form
baseline data on which to build future research needs and to help
support care farmers. The second study is an in-depth analysis of
clients from different types of care farm, and provides empirical
data on psychological health and well-being outcomes. The aim of
this study is to help build up a body of robust scientific evidence
to inform health and social care providers (amongst others) of the
benefits of time spent on a care farm. We conclude by setting care
farming in a wider context by looking at the potential impact that
an expansion of care farming could have on emergent health and
social issues and policy in the UK.
Pilgrim S E, Cullen L, Smith D J and Pretty J. 2008. Ecological knowledge is lost in wealthier communities and countries.
Environmental Sci & Tech 42(4), 1004-09
Accumulated
knowledge about nature is an important part of people’s capacity to
manage and conserve the environment. But this ecological knowledge
is now being increasingly lost. There have been few cross-cultural
and quantitative studies to describe the phenomenon of its loss.
Here we show a strong inverse correlation between ecological
knowledge and income levels in and among India, Indonesia, and the
UK (n) 1095 interviews). Knowledge acquisition and subsequent
saturation occurs at an early age in the most resource-dependent
communities, but not in the UK, where knowledge levels are low and
acquisition is slow. Knowledge variance within communities increases
in association with ecological knowledge decline and a scale of
progressive knowledge loss was revealed with the most rapid rates of
loss in industrialized regions. Various studies have described the
mutually exclusive relationship between economic growth and
environmental
conservation; however this is the first to consider the association
between economic growth and social capacity to manage the
environment. Understanding ecological knowledge loss is important to
understanding the declining capacities of communities undergoing
economic development to manage their natural resources and the
future of ecosystem diversity in the light of current patterns of
economic growth.
Cullen L, Smith, D J, Pretty J & Pilgrim S E. 2007. The links between local ecological knowledge and wealth in indigenous communities.
International Journal of Social Sci 2(1): 289-299
Accumulated knowledge
about nature is an important part of people’s capacity to manage and
conserve the environment. Local ecological knowledge is vital if
natural habitats are to receive sufficient public support for their
conservation and if local capacity for self-management is to be
maintained. Loss of traditional knowledge is a worldwide phenomenon,
resulting in reduced environmental awareness and diminished local
capacity for sustainable use and conservation of natural resources.
Economic development leading to environmental disconnection through
reduced local resource dependence and interaction is causing local
knowledge to be hybridised and lost or replaced with modern
knowledge systems. Simultaneously, globalisation and increased
opportunities to trade can result in severe overexploitation. To
date, there have been few cross-cultural and quantitative studies to
describe this knowledge loss. This study illustrates the loss of
local knowledge using an Indonesian case study, the Kaledupa
sub-district of Wakatobi Marine National Park. Kaledupa has a
population of around 17,000 comprised of two distinct cultural
groups, Kaledupan Islanders (Pulo) and traditionally nomadic boat
people (Bajo) now living in permanent houses on stilts over the sea.
Marine resources are heavily exploited for income, food, building
materials and waste disposal by both groups. Marine ecological
knowledge differed significantly between Bajo and Pulo communities
(U = 1305.000; p < 0.001). An inverse relationship was shown between
marine ecological knowledge and wealth (Rs = -0.395; p < 0.001), and
a positive relationship between marine ecological knowledge and
support for traditional management practices (Rs = 0.396; p <
0.001). This has implications for the future management of marine
and coastal systems in the area and in similar small island
communities worldwide.
Pilgrim S, Cullen L, Smith D J and Pretty J. 2007. Hidden harvest or hidden revenue.
Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 6(1), 150-159
In the 5-7 million
years we spent as hunter-gatherers, our knowledge base evolved with
the ecosystems within which it existed and has further developed as
a result of historical continuity of local resource dependence.
Knowing which wild animals and plants are palatable and have
nutritious content has long been a survival strategy for the rural
poor, indigenous peoples and tribal communities, particularly those
living in harsh environmental conditions. This information is
essential to supplementing diets when harvests fail due to insect
blights, disease or adverse weather conditions, hence wild
nutritional resources are often termed the “hidden harvest”. This
study used ethnobotanical and ethnozoological surveys to assess the
relationship between wealth and use of local resources in a remote
region of Indonesia. Contrary to the results of previous studies,
this study found that poorer households are more likely to use local
resources to generate income than wealthier households, who are more
likely to use local species for consumption and rely on other
sources of income. It also found that individuals or communities
with higher income levels are less likely to support traditional
ecosystem practices. The shift in resource collection incentives
(from subsistence to income) as a result is likely to threaten
ecosystems, management practices and the human populations that will
have to rely on them in the future. Therefore, it may be essential
to externally-manage systems of resource management in the future as
economic development encroaches on traditional communities. The
findings of this study also have implications for the future of less
wealthy communities in resource-rich regions. If access to natural
resources is ever reduced or removed, for instance through ecosystem
degradation or management regulations limiting extracted yields, in
addition to ensuring that alternative food sources are available,
state authorities must ensure that alternative income streams are
found for these communities, particularly in the light of future
economic development. Therefore, both wild and human populations
inhabiting an ecosystem come under threat when economic development
and market pressures force the local view of natural resources to
shift from one of hidden harvest opportunities to hidden revenue.
Pilgrim S, Smith D J and Pretty J. 2007. A cross-regional quantitative assessment of the factors affecting ecoliteracy: implications for conservation policy and practice.
Ecological Applications 17(6), 1742-51
The value of
accumulated ecological knowledge, termed ecoliteracy, is vital to
both human and ecosystem health. Maintenance of this knowledge is
essential for continued support of local conservation efforts and
the capacity of communities to self- or co-manage their local
resources sustainably. Most previous studies have been qualitative
and small scale, documenting ecoliteracy in geographically isolated
locations. In this study, we take a different approach, focusing on
(1) the primary factors affecting individual levels of ecoliteracy,
(2) whether these factors shift with economic development, and (3)
if different knowledge protection strategies are required for the
future. We compared non-resource-dependent communities in the United
Kingdom with resource-dependent communities in India and Indonesia
(n ¼ 1250 interviews). We found that UK residents with the highest
levels of ecoliteracy visited the countryside frequently, lived and
grew up in rural areas, and acquired their knowledge from informal
word-of-mouth sources, such as parents and friends, rather than
television and schooling. The ecoliteracy of resource-dependent
community members, however, varied with wealth status and gender.
The least wealthy families depended most on local resources for
their livelihoods and had the highest levels of ecoliteracy. Gender
roles
affected
both the level and content of an individual’s ecoliteracy. The
importance of reciprocal oral transfer of this knowledge in addition
to direct experience to the maintenance of ecoliteracy was apparent
at all sites. Lessons learned may contribute to new local resource
management strategies for combined ecoliteracy conservation. Without
novel policies, local community management capacity is likely to be
depleted in the future. Key words: ecoliteracy; India;
Indonesia; knowledge; natural resource; oral traditions; resource
management; sustainable management; United Kingdom
Pretty J, Peacock J, Hine R, Sellens M, South N and Griffin M. 2007.
Green Exercise in the UK Countryside: Effects on Health and
Psychological Well-Being, and Implications for Policy and Planning.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 50 (2)
211-231
There is
evidence that contact with the natural environment and green space
promotes good health. It is also well known that participation in
regular physical activity generates physical and psychological
health benefits. The authors have hypothesised that ‘green exercise’
will improve health and psychological well-being, yet few studies
have quantified these effects. This study measured the effects of 10
green exercise case studies (including walking, cycling,
horse-riding, fishing, canal-boating and conservation activities) in
four regions of the UK on 263 participants. Even though these
participants were generally an active and healthy group, it was
found that green exercise led to a significant improvement in
self-esteem and total mood disturbance (with anger-hostility,
confusion-bewilderment, depression-dejection and tension-anxiety all
improving post-activity). Self-esteem and mood were found not to be
affected by the type, intensity or duration of the green exercise,
as the results were similar for all 10 case studies. Thus all these
activities generated mental health benefits, indicating the
potential for a wider health and well-being dividend from green
exercise. Green exercise thus has important implications for public
and environmental health, and for a wide range of policy sectors.
Pretty J. 2006. Physical activity in modern society: is there also an environmental benefit?
Environmental Conservation 33 (2), 87-88
Higgins (2005) has
shown that increased human physical activity in the USA could lead
to both improvements in physical health and reductions in oil
consumption by motor vehicles, thereby also reducing carbon
emissions. It is an intriguing idea and, as the health costs of
obesity are so high, the potential health and environmental savings
could be vast. These questions deserve wider attention, as all the
trends suggest that consumption of both fossil fuels and food
calories (combined with more sedentary lifestyles) will continue to
rise in the coming years.
Pretty J, Hine R and Peacock J. 2006. Green Exercise: The benefits
of activities in green places. The Biologist 53(3), 143-148
Samson C and Pretty J. 2006. Environmental and health benefits of hunting lifestyles and diets for the Innu of Labrador.
Food Policy 31(6), p 528-553
The Innu of Northern
Labrador, Canada have undergone profound transitions in recent
decades with important implications for conservation and health
policy. The change from permanent nomadic hunting, gathering and
trapping in `the country’ (nutshimit) to sedentary village
life (known as‘sedentarisation’) has been associated with a marked
decline in physical and mental health. The overarching response of
the national government has been to emphasize village-based and
institutional solutions. We show that changing the balance back to
country-based activities would address both the primary causes of
the crisis and improve the health and well-being of the Innu.
Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork, interviews with Innu older people
(Tshenut), empirical data on nutrition and activity, and
comparative data from the experiences of other indigenous peoples,
we identify pertinent biological and environmental transitions of
significance to the current plight of the Innu. We show that
nutrition and physical activity transitions have had major negative
impacts on individual and community health. However, hunting and its
associated social and cultural forms is still a viable option as
part of a mixed livelihood and economy in the
environmentally-significant boreal forests and tundra of Northern
Labrador. Cultural continuity through Innu hunting activities is
a means to
decelerate, and possibly reverse, their decline. We suggest four new
policy areas to help
restore
country-based activities: i) a food policy for country food; ii) an
outpost programme; iii) ecotourism; and iv) an amended school
calendar. Finally, we indicate the implications of our analysis for
people in other countries.
Pretty J, Peacock J, Sellens M and Griffin M. 2005. The Mental and
Physical Health Outcomes of Green Exercise. International Journal
of Environmental Health Research 15(5), 319-337
Both
physical activity and exposure to nature are known separately to
have positive effects on physical and mental health. We have
investigated whether there is a synergistic benefit in adopting
physical activities whilst being directly exposed to nature (‘green
exercise’). Five groups of 20 subjects were exposed to a sequence of
30 scenes projected on a wall whilst exercising on a treadmill. Four
categories of scenes were tested: rural pleasant, rural unpleasant,
urban pleasant and urban unpleasant. The control was running without
exposure to images. Blood pressure and two psychological measures
(self-esteem and mood) were measured before and after the
intervention. There was a clear effect of both exercise and
different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood. Exercise
alone significantly reduced blood pressure, increased self-esteem,
and had a positive significant effect on 4 of 6 mood measures. Both
rural and urban pleasant scenes produced a significantly greater
positive effect on self-esteem than the exercise-only control. This
shows the synergistic effect of green exercise in both rural and
urban environments. By contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant
scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem. The
rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the
beneficial effects of exercise on three different measures of mood.
It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural
unpleasant scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than
already urban unpleasant scenes. We conclude that green exercise has
important public and environmental health consequences. Keywords:
Green exercise, physical activity, mental health, self-esteem, mood,
environmental health
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